a. What are the real underpinnings of ethical systems?
From my modest perusal of this topic online, I’ve found that there are two areas in which the idea of ethical sources are dealt with…it is either as a part of organized religion and the broader impact of such things as Judeo-Christian culture, or a secular (philosophical) perspective. This non-religious perspective has always been a source of a lot of my thinking…it’s not that I necessarily follow any of these philosophies, but rather, I see so much of it as apologetics…
An interesting aspect of this would be to consider the idea represented by the maxim: to a hammer, everything is a nail. In this regard, you see various cultures and social backdrops influencing the questions and the answers which we come to. 17th century German intellectuals consider that all of the underpinnings of ethics can be rationally considered, and that duty and responsibility are important. Many Americans (especially since the 60’s) seem to think that happiness is the motivating factor in how we deal with others:
John Stuart Mill (Utilitarianism, 1861):
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"Unquestionably it is possible to do without happiness; it is done involuntarily by nineteen-twentieths of mankind, even in those parts of our present world which are least deep in barbarism; and it often has to be done voluntarily by the hero or the martyr, for the sake of something which he prizes more than his individual happiness. But this something, what is it, unless the happiness of others or some of the requisites of happiness?" |
If you go all the way back to the Greeks you can see that there is a bias towards a sort of avuncular sort of rationalism. Here Aristotle breaks down the underpinnings of ethics with a razor sharp concision and reasonableness of an old uncle. There is always a presupposition that it can be rationally perceived.
Aristotle (384-322BC) in the Nicomachean ethics:
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"Presumably the remark that the best good is happiness is apparently something [generally] agreed, and we still need a clearer idea of what the best good is. Perhaps, then, we shall find this if we first grasp the function of a human being… What, then, could this be? For living is apparently shared with plants, but what we are looking for us the special function of a human being; hence we should set aside the life of nutrition and growth. The life next in order is some sort of life of sense perception; but this too is apparently shared with horse, ox, and every animal. The remaining possibility, then, is some sort of life of action of the [part of the soul] that has reason… We have found, then, that the human function is activity of the soul in accord with reason or requiring reason… Now each function is completed well by being completed in accord with the virtue proper [to that kind of thing]. And so the human good proves to be the activity of the soul in accord with virtue, and indeed with the best and most complete virtue, if there are more virtues than one." |
Obviously I am in no way qualified to answer these nearly unanswerable questions, but they are grist for you to think about!
b. How would you define what it is to be cultured?
I am not talking about whether you like Beethoven, but what are the defining characteristics of someone who lives in this culture (any culture actually). There are aspects of personal technology, knowledge, and belief systems, rules for interacting with others, language (languages?). What makes someone a part of western culture? Does it have something to do with heritage, with Enculturation or Socialization? And as we look closer, what do these terms even mean? Is it about what we believe, or how we think? Is it about our goals, or background?
What Does It Mean To Be Cultured?
http://www.ridiculouslyextraordinary.com/what-does-it-mean-to-be-cultured
Adam Smith - a rather subtle thinker - gained fame for his writing on the the topic of morality before writing The Wealth of Nations. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments he offers his ideas on the foundations of morality. I'm sure I would butcher his theory by summarizing it, so I will not try but recommend reading a summary of it.
Regarding culture: I think the 19th century Brit. Matthew Arnold put it well:
"Culture is to know the best that has been said and thought in the world."
This raises the question of what is best, which can open a rats nest of issues.
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